Definition
Classicism is an artistic and literary movement that began in ancient Greece and Rome and emphasizes reason, clarity, harmony, and order in art, architecture, and literature.
Origin
The origins of Classicism date back to the golden days of Ancient Greece and Rome. Classicism is thought to have originated around the 4th century BC in Greece, with prominent figures such as Aristotle and Sophocles. This practice progressed further in Rome during the 1st century BC and 1st century AD through the works of writers like Cicero and Vergil. The Greeks’ focus on rationality laid the foundation of classicism in art, architecture, and literature. These ideas were later revived during the Renaissance, profoundly influencing the development of Western art and thought throughout subsequent centuries.
Historical Context
The Peloponnesian War (the conflict between Athens and Sparta in ancient Greece), the devastating plague (that killed over one-third of the population of Greece), and the decline of Athens’ Golden Age provided abundant inspiration for Greek writers and artists, leading to the emergence of Classicism. The creations of this era offer an understanding into the intricacies of human nature and societal turmoil by portraying the vulnerability of human nature, the effects of catastrophe on society, and the ethical and philosophical considerations related to power and destiny.
Characteristics
Classicism is distinguished by several characteristics, including, but not limited to:
- affirmation of balance and rationality over impulse and emotion
- emphasis on wholeness and unity in art and literature
- logic and clarity in expression and structure
- idealization of human form and nature
- focus on universal themes that resonate with humanity rather than individual, emotional experiences.
Key Forms and Genres
Classicism significantly shaped various literary forms and genres. The two forms that ruled Classicism are Poetry and Drama which are further divided into different literary genres which are:
Epic
Epic is often known as the first genre of poetry. It is a long narrative poem that narrates the hero’s adventures. Usually, in an epic, the setting is vast and the hero’s character is larger than life (the protagonist is a legendary figure). An epic is always based on grand themes, employs embellished language, and starts with an invocation to gods and muses.
Tragedy
Tragedy is a genre of drama, and the most common themes of tragedy are suffering, loss, and the inevitable downfall of the protagonist. Tragedy aims to evoke a sense of catharsis (a mix of pity and fear) in the audience, as they witness the protagonist’s inevitable decline. The structure of tragedy includes an introduction or exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution (ending with the protagonist’s downfall). According to Aristotle, a tragedy is a play in which a noble character falls from grace because of his tragic flaw or hamartia (that is some impulsive act or prideful trait).
Pastoral
Another genre of poetry prevalent during classicism, particularly within Greek and Roman literature is pastoral. It is a literary composition on a rural theme, with a simple setting and characters of shepherds who speak in a courtly manner.
Comedy
Another genre of drama that was common during the classical period in ancient Greece and Rome was comedy. The aim of comedy was to amuse the audience while providing both entertainment and social commentary by employing satire and humour. Both Greek and Roman playwrights used comedy to explore and critique the human condition, blending farce with insightful observations about contemporary life.
Representative Authors
Several legendary authors contributed to making Classicism a prominent and successful literary movement including names like:
Homer
He is often considered one of the greatest poets of the West (it is of interest to note that various critics and historians believe that Homer never existed and he was merely a fictional character). Greeks considered him to be responsible for writing two famous epics named “Iliad” and “Odyssey” (but grammarians think that both poems were written by two different people and some critics point out that the works of Homer are written by an anonymous group of bards).
Sophocles
Sophocles is an ancient Greek playwright who is celebrated for his profound contributions to the development of Greek tragedy (as he is associated with introducing a third actor and innovating the dramatic form of tragedy). His most famous works are “Oedipus Rex” and “Antigone” (the tragedies generally known as Theban plays).
Euripides:
Euripides, the playwright during the Classical Greek period is renowned for his innovative approach to drama (i.e. he represented mythical heroes as ordinary people). His works serve as a chronicle of Athenian thought during a turbulent time in its history as he witnessed the decline of the Golden Age in Greece. He is known for his plays such as “Medea”, “The Bacchae”, and “Electra”, which often challenge traditional norms and explore the complexities of human emotions and motivations.
Aeschylus:
Along with Sophocles and Euripides, Aeschylus is one of the three ancient Greek tragedians and is often known as the father of tragedy. He is credited with expanding the scope of Greek drama by introducing a second actor, which allowed for more dynamic dialogue and complex character interactions. His best-known work is his trilogy “Oresteia” and his other works are “Prometheus Bound”, “The Persians”, “Seven Against Thebes”, and “The Suppliants”.
Vergil:
Publius Vergilius Maro or simply Vergil is an ancient Roman poet. He is famous for his three poems “Eclogues”, “Georgics”, and the epic “Aeneid (often considered Rome’s national epic)”. He made a significant contribution to classical literature by popularizing the pastoral genre through his “Eclogues” (or “Bucolics”). Before Vergil, pastoral poetry (which idealizes rural life and nature) was relatively underdeveloped.
Representative Works
The literary works of Classicism are based on strong narrative structure, moral clarity, and rich poetic language and explore themes of heroism, ethics, and destiny. Some famous works of Classical literature are:
Iliad
The Iliad is an epic poem by Homer, divided into twenty-four books structurally, it recounts the events of the Trojan War. This epic depicts the consequences of anger through the character of Achilles and highlights humanistic values like honour, truth, compassion, loyalty, and love for family and gods.
Oedipus Rex:
It is a Greek tragedy written by Sophocles. The play is about Oedipus, King of Thebes, who learns a horrible truth about himself while attempting to purge his city of a terrible epidemic. It explores themes of fate versus free will, self-discovery, and blindness, that highlight the results of ignorance in humans and the unstoppable force of destiny.
Medea:
It is one of the greatest works composed by Euripides. Medea is a tragedy that centers on a sorceress named Medea who avenges her husband (by murdering their children) to punish him for his infidelity. It depicts the emotions of betrayal and desertion, and how they evolve into a desire for vengeance.
Prometheus Bound:
Prometheus Bound is a tragic play which is attributed to Aeschylus. The story of this play revolves around the suffering of Prometheus (god of fire in Greek mythology) who defies Zeus (sky god in ancient Greek mythology) by stealing fire to benefit humanity. The main themes of this tragedy are punishment, rebellion, and the conflict between tyranny and justice.
Aeneid
Aeneid is an epic poem by Vergil that tells the story of Aeneas (a Trojan hero who travels to Italy to lay the foundations of the Roman Empire). It integrates myth and history to highlight Rome’s origins and destined supremacy (which represents Augustan patriotism and empire).
Major Themes
1. Order and Harmony
Literature composed during classicism emphasizes order, symmetry, balance, and harmony with a well-organized plot and parts forming a cohesive whole. For example, the structured format of epic poetry and the unities of time, place, and action (given by Aristotle) in classical drama explicitly depict the themes of order and harmony.
2. Rationality
Another major theme that can be seen in the literature of classicism is rationality. Literary works such as the Greek tragedies and comedies, as well as Roman epics and texts highlight the importance of reason to understand the world and human nature.
3. Heroism
Classical literature, particularly epics, includes the theme of heroism, depicted through heroic figures who undertake great challenges and embody honour and courage.
4. Idealism
Classicism in literature celebrated the ideal human experience, portraying characters, especially protagonists, as noble personalities with high virtues and qualities. Tragedies and epics often depicted heroic figures who exemplified courage, honour, and wisdom, serving as paragons of idealism.
5. Moral and Ethical Values
Another prominent theme reflected in the literature of Classicism is the emphasis on moral and ethical values. Characters presented in most tragedies like Sophocles’ “Antigone”, Euripides’ “Medea”, and Roman works such as Vergil’s “Aeneid”, often struggle with complex questions of right and wrong, which depicts the importance of ethical and moral values.
6. Influence of the Divine
The influence of the divine is also an important theme of classical literature, where gods play an active role in shaping human destiny. In works like Homer’s “Iliad” and Vergil’s “Aeneid,” divine beings intervene in mortal affairs, guiding or hindering characters based on their will. These narratives illustrate the intertwined nature of human actions and divine influence.
Different Literary Periods
Classicism, in literature, is divided into three key periods or ages which are the Homeric or Heroic Period, the Classical Greek period, and the Classical Roman period.
I. The Homeric or Heroic period
As the name suggests, the Homeric or Heroic period is distinguished by the works of Homer, particularly by his epics “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. This period spans approximately from the 8th to the 6th century BCE and reflects heroic ideals and values of early Greek society through legendary figures and divine interactions. Common themes prevalent in the works of this era include honour, valour, and fate, which represent ancient Greece’s cultural and moral ethos.
II. The Classical Greek Period
The classical Greek period spans from the 5th to the 4th century BCE and is characterized by a focus on rationalism, democratic ideals, and artistic excellence. This era is highlighted by the playwrights like Sophocles as several dramatic forms like tragedy and comedy emerged at that time. During this period, a deep exploration of human nature, ethics, and politics was also developed which influenced Western thought later.
III. The Classical Roman Period
The Classical Roman period spans from the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE and is characterized by its adoption and adaption to the Greek classical ideals. Roman authors and philosophers incorporated and reinterpreted Greek themes within their own cultural context. This period emphasizes the fusion of Greek and Roman traditions, contributing to the development of Roman literature, law, and governance, and leaving a lasting legacy on Western civilization.
Conclusion
In short, Classicism, with its roots in ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizes balance, rationality, and harmony, shaping the core of Western artistic and literary traditions. From Homer’s epic tales to the profound tragedies of Sophocles and Vergil’s grand narratives, Classicism provides timeless insights into human nature and societal values. Its celebration of order, idealism, and ethical principles continues to influence contemporary art and literature, marking Classicism as a foundational element in the development of Western thought and creativity.